What causes the activation of microglia?
Microglia become activated following exposure to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and/or endogenous damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and removal of the immune-suppressive signals. Activated microglia can acquire different phenotypes depending on cues in its surrounding environment.
What is oxygen glucose deprivation?
Oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) has been used to investigate the effects of ischemia in cultured brain capillary endothelial cells, however this involves a change of medium which in itself may affect the cells.
What is microglia activation?
The inflammatory response is mediated by the activated microglia, the resident immune cells of the CNS, which normally respond to neuronal damage and remove the damaged cells by phagocytosis. Activation of microglia is a hallmark of brain pathology.
Can monocytes differentiate into microglia?
Monocytes are indeed recruited to the neonatal and adult brain, in the latter case most often under inflammatory conditions, where they can differentiate into microglia-like cells.
What happens if microglia are damaged?
However, if the inflammation lasts for a prolonged time, the process can start to destroy healthy brain cells. Uncontrolled inflammation caused by microglia in the brain has been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.
How can microglial activation be reduced?
Resveratrol has been shown to inhibit the activation of microglia and reduce the production of pro-inflammatory factors through intracellular cascades of signaling pathways such as MAPKs, phosphoinositide3-kinase (PI3-K)/Akt, and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) pathways.
What happens when neurons are deprived of oxygen and glucose?
The longer neurons are deprived of oxygen and glucose, the less their ability to maintain adequate ATP levels, resulting in greater cell death.
What process does glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water represent?
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration converts oxygen and glucose into water and carbon dioxide. Water and carbon dioxide are by- products and ATP is energy that is transformed from the process.
What cytokines activate microglia?
Abstract. Microglia are activated in response to a number of different pathological states within the CNS including injury, ischemia, and infection. Microglial activation results in their production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α.
Are microglia macrophages?
Microglia are the only macrophage population in the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma, where they can interact with neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (not shown).
What is microglial dysfunction?
Alternatively, the microglial dysfunction hypothesis proposes that AD pathogenesis is modified by loss of normal microglial function, encompassing both dysregulated microglial activation and loss of microglial ‘neurosupportive’ function [10,11,12,13,14].